Physics Project Essay Example for Free

Physics Project Essay nerve atomic number 18 organs that principal(prenominal)tain go down, and switch over it to electro-chemical impulses in neurons. The elementaryst photoreceptors in conscious mental imagery connect escaped to movement. In towering beings the nub is a complex optical system which collects light from the surrounding environment regulates its in xsity through a diaphragm focuses it through an adjustable assembly of lens systemes to frame an image converts this image into a set of electric signals and transmits these signals to the brain, through complex neural pathways that connect the heart, via the optic nerve, to the visual cortex and different argonas of the brain. Eyes with resolving power bring on come in ten fundamentally variant forms, and 96% of animal species take in a complex optical system.1 Image-resolving mid functions atomic number 18 present in molluscs, chordates and arthropods.2 The simplest look, such(prenominal) as tho se in microorganisms, do nonhing scarcely retrieve whether the surroundings are light or dark, which is sufficient for the entrainment of circadian rhythms. From to a greater extent than complex look, retinal photosensitive ganglion cells delight signals along the retinohypothalamic tr enactment to the suprachiasmatic nuclei to effect circadian adjustment. Contentshide * 1 Overview * 2 Evolution * 3 Types of center of attention * 3.1 Normal eyes * 3.2 Pit eyes * 3.2.1 orbiculate lensed eye * 3.2.2 Multiple lenses * 3.2.3 Refractive cornea * 3.2.4 Reflector eyes * 3.3 Compound eyes * 3.3.1 Apposition eyes * 3.3.2 Superposition eyes * 3.3.3 Parabolic superposition * 3.3.4 Other * 3.3.5 Nutrients of the eye * 4 Relationship to life takements * 5 Visual sharpness * 6 Perception of contorts * 7 Rods and c stars * 8 Pigmentation * 9 See uniformly * 10 References * 10.1 Notes * 10.2 Bibliography * 11 External links edit OverviewEye of the wisent, the European bison Complex e yes understructure distinguish shapes and colors. The visual playing fields of many organisms, especially predators, involve large areas of binocular vision to improve depth perception in other organisms, eyes are located so as to maximize the field of view, such as in rabbits and horses, which engender monocular vision. The first proto-eyes evolved among animals 600 jillion years ago, ab turn up the time of the Cambrian explosion.3 The last common ancestor of animals possessed the biochemical toolkit necessary for vision, and more advanced eyes defend evolved in 96% of animal species in six of the thirty-plus4 main phyla.1 In more or less(prenominal) vertebrates and some molluscs, the eye works by allowing light to enter and project onto a photosensitive panel of cells, known as the retina, at the rear of the eye. The cone cells (for color) and the rod cells (for low-light contrasts) in the retina detect and convert light into neural signals for vision.The visual signals ar e then transmitted to the brain via the optic nerve. Such eyes are typically roughly spherical, filled with a transparent gel-like substance called the vitreous humour, with a focalisation lens and often an iris the relaxing or tightening of the muscles around the iris change the coat of the pupil, thereby regulating the amount of light that enters the eye,5 and reducing aberrations when there is enough light.6 The eyes of nigh cephalopods, fish, amphibians and snakes hand fixed lens shapes, and focusing vision is achieved by telescoping the lenssimilar to how a camera focuses.7 Compound eyes are found among the arthropods and are composed of many simple facets which, depending on the details of anatomy, whitethorn give either a single pixelated image or multiple images, per eye. Each sensor has its own lens and photosensitive cell(s). a few(prenominal) eyes project up to 28,000 such sensors, which are arranged hexagonally, and which can give a full 360-degree field of visio n.Compound eyes are very sensitive to exploit. Some arthropods, including many Strepsiptera, have intricate eyes of only if a few facets, each with a retina capable of creating an image, creating vision. With each eye viewing a different thing, a fused image from all the eyes is produced in the brain, providing very different, high-resolution images. Possessing detailed hyperspectral color vision, the Mantis shrimp has been reported to have the worlds more or less complex color vision system.8 Trilobites, which are now extinct, had unique compound eyes. They used clear calcite crystals to form the lenses of their eyes. In this, they differ from most other arthropods, which have soft eyes. The morsel of lenses in such an eye varied, however some trilobites had only one, and some had thousands of lenses in one eye.In contrast to compound eyes, simple eyes are those that have a single lens. For example, jumping spiders have a large pair of simple eyes with a narrow field of view, supported by an array of other, smaller eyes for peripheral vision. Some insect larvae, like caterpillars, have a different quality of simple eye (stemmata) which gives a rough image. Some of the simplest eyes, called ocelli, can be found in animals like some of the snails, which can non actually see in the normal sense. They do have photosensitive cells, but no lens and no other means of projecting an image onto these cells. They can distinguish between light and dark, but no more. This enables snails to keep out of direct sunlight. In organisms dwelling near deep-sea vents, compound eyes have been secondarily simplified and adapted to blur the infra-red light produced by the hot ventsin this way the bearers can spot hot springs and avoid being boiled alive.9 editEvolutionMain article Evolution of the eyeEvolution of the eyePhotoreception is phylogenetically very old, with various theories of phylogenesis.10 The common origin (monophyly) of all animal eyes is now tolerantly acce pted as fact. This is establish upon the shared anatomical and genetic features of all eyes that is, all modern eyes, varied as they are, have their origins in a proto-eye believed to have evolved some 540 million years ago.111213 The majority of the advancements in early eyes are believed to have taken only a few million years to develop, since the first predator to gain true visualize would have touched off an arms race.14 Prey animals and competing predators alike would be at a distinct disadvantage without such capabilities and would be less likely to survive and reproduce. Hence multiple eye typesetters cases and subtypes developed in parallel. Eyes in various animals show adaption to their requirements. For example, birds of fertilize have often greater visual acuity than humans, and some can see ultraviolet light. The different forms of eye in, for example, vertebrates and mollusks are often cited as examples of parallel evolution, patronage their distant common ancestry. The very earliest eyes, called eyespots, were simple patches of photoreceptor protein in unicellular animals.In multicellular beings, multicellular eyespots evolved, physically similar to the receptor patches for taste and smell. These eyespots could only sense ambient brightness they could distinguish light and dark, but not the direction of the lightsource.15 Through gradual change, as the eyespot depressed into a shallow cup shape, the ability to slightly discriminate directional brightness was achieved by using the angle at which the light hit certain cells to identify the source. The equal deepened over time, the opening diminished in size, and the number of photoreceptor cells increased, forming an effective pinhole camera that was capable of dimly distinguishing shapes.16 The thin overgrowth of transparent cells over the eyes aperture, before formed to prevent damage to the eyespot, allowed the segregated contents of the eye chamber to specialize into a transparent humou r that optimized color filtering, blocked harmful radiation, change the eyes refractive index, and allowed functionality out slope of water.The transparent protective cells eventually split into two stages, with circulatory fluid in between that allowed wider viewing angles and greater imaging resolution, and the thickness of the transparent layer gradually increased, in most species with the transparent crystallin protein.17 The gap between tissue layers naturally formed a bioconvex shape, an optimally ensample structure for a normal refractive index. Independently, a transparent layer and a nontransparent layer split forward from the lens the cornea and iris. Separation of the forward layer again formed a humour, the aqueous humour. This increased refractive power and again eased circulatory problems. Formation of a nontransparent ring allowed more tune vessels, more circulation, and larger eye sizes.17 editTypes of eyeThere are ten different eye layoutsindeed every way of cap turing an image known to man, with the exceptions of whizz and Fresnel lenses. Eye types can be categorized into simple eyes, with one concave photoreceptive surface, and compound eyes, which comprise a number of individual lenses laid out on a convex surface.1 Note that simple does not imply a reduced level of complexity or acuity. Indeed, any eye type can be adapted for almost any behavior or environment. The only limitations specific to eye types are that of resolutionthe physics of compound eyes prevents them from achieving a resolution better than 1. Also, superposition eyes can achieve greater sensitivity than apposition eyes, so are better suited to dark-dwelling creatures.1 Eyes as well as hang into two groups on the basis of their photoreceptors cellular construction, with the photoreceptor cells either being cilliated (as in the vertebrates) or rhabdomeric. These two groups are not monophyletic the cnidaria alike possess cilliated cells, 18 and some annelids possess bo th.19 editNormal eyesHuman eyes are examples of normal eyesSimple eyes are rather ubiquitous, and lens-bearing eyes have evolved at least seven times in vertebrates, cephalopods, annelids, crustacea and cubozoa.20 editPit eyesPit eyes, also known as stemma, are eye-spots which may be set into a pit to reduce the angles of light that enters and affects the eyespot, to allow the organism to deduce the angle of incoming light.1 Found in about 85% of phyla, these basic forms were probably the precursors to more advanced types of simple eye. They are small, comprising up to about nose candy cells covering about 100 m.1 The directionality can be improved by reducing the size of the aperture, by incorporating a reflective layer behind the receptor cells, or by filling the pit with a refractile material.1 editSpherical lensed eyeThe resolution of pit eyes can be greatly improved by incorporating a material with a higher refractive index to form a lens, which may greatly reduce the blur un iversal gas constant encounteredhence increasing the resolution obtainable.1 The most basic form, withal seen in some gastropods and annelids, consists of a lens of one refractive index. A far hastyer image can be obtained using materials with a high refractive index, decreasing to the edges this decreases the focal length and thus allows a sharp image to form on the retina.1 This also allows a larger aperture for a given over sharpness of image, allowing more light to enter the lens and a flatter lens, reducing spherical aberration.1 Such an inhomogeneous lens is necessary in roam for the focal length to drop from about 4 times the lens radius, to 2.5 radii.1Heterogeneous eyes have evolved at least eight times quaternary or more times in gastropods, once in the copepods, once in the annelids and once in the cephalopods.1 No aquatic organisms possess homogeneous lenses presumptively the evolutionary pressure for a heterogeneous lens is great enough for this stage to be quickly outgrown.1 This eye creates an image that is sharp enough that motion of the eye can cause significant blurring. To minimize the effect of eye motion term the animal moves, most such eyes have alter eye muscles.1 The ocelli of insects bear a simple lens, but their focal point always lies behind the retina consequently they can never form a sharp image.This capitulates the function of the eye. Ocelli (pit-type eyes of arthropods) blur the image across the whole retina, and are consequently excellent at responding to rapid changes in light intensity across the whole visual field this fast response is further accelerated by the large nerve bundles which rush the information to the brain.21 Focusing the image would also cause the suns image to be focused on a few receptors, with the possibility of damage under the intense light shielding the receptors would block out some light and thus reduce their sensitivity.21 This fast response has led to suggestions that the ocelli of insects are used mainly in flight, because they can be used to detect sudden changes in which way is up (because light, especially UV light which is absorbed by vegetation, usually comes from above).21 editMultiple lensesSome marine organisms bear more than one lens for instance the copepod Pontella has three. The outer has a parabolic surface, countering the effectuate of spherical aberration while allowing a sharp image to be formed. Another copepod, Copilias eyes have two lenses, arranged like those in a telescope.1 Such arrangements are rare and poorly understood, but represent an interest election construction. An interesting use of multiple lenses is seen in some hunters such as eagles and jumping spiders, which have a refractive cornea (discussed next) these have a forbid lens, enlarging the observed image by up to 50% over the receptor cells, thus increasing their optical resolution.1 editRefractive corneaIn the eyes of most mammals, birds, reptiles, and most other terrestrial ve rtebrates (along with spiders and some insect larvae) the vitreous fluid has a higher refractive index than the air, relieving the lens of the function of reducing the focal length. This has freed it up for fine adjustments of focus, allowing a very high resolution to be obtained.1 As with spherical lenses, the problem of spherical aberration caused by the lens can be countered either by using an inhomogeneous lens material, or by flattening the lens.1 Flattening the lens has a disadvantage the quality of vision is diminished away from the main line of focus, meaning that animals requiring all-round vision are detrimented. Such animals often display an inhomogeneous lens instead.1 As mentioned above, a refractive cornea is only usable out of water in water, there is no difference in refractive index between the vitreous fluid and the surrounding water. Hence creatures which have returned to the waterpenguins and seals, for examplelose their refractive cornea and return to lens-base d vision. An alternative solution, borne by some divers, is to have a very strong cornea.1 editReflector eyesAn alternative to a lens is to line the in nerve of the eye with mirrors, and reflect the image to focus at a central point.1 The nature of these eyes means that if one were to peer into the pupil of an eye, one would see the same image that the organism would see, reflected back out.1 Many small organisms such as rotifers, copeopods and platyhelminths use such organs, but these are too small to produce usable images.1 Some larger organisms, such as scallops, also use reflector eyes. The scallop Pecten has up to 100 millimeter-scale reflector eyes fringing the edge of its shell. It detects moving objects as they pass successive lenses.1 There is at least one vertebrate, the spookfish, whose eyes include reflective optics for focusing of light. Each of the two eyes of a spookfish collects light from both above and below the light coming from above is focused by a lens, while that coming from below, by a curved mirror composed of many layers of small reflective plates made of guanine crystals.22 editCompound eyesAn image of a house fly compound eye surface by using Scanning Electron MicroscopeAnatomy of the compound eye of an insectArthropods such as this carpenter bee have compound eyesA compound eye may consist of thousands of individual photoreceptor units or ommatidia (ommatidium, singular). The image perceived is a cabal of inputs from the numerous ommatidia (individual eye units), which are located on a convex surface, thus pointing in slightly different directions. Compared with simple eyes, compound eyes possess a very large view angle, and can detect fast movement and, in some cases, the polarization of light.23 Because the individual lenses are so small, the effects of diffraction impose a limit on the possible resolution that can be obtained. This can only be countered by increasing lens size and number.To see with a resolution comparable to our simple eyes, humans would require compound eyes which would each reach the size of their head. Compound eyes fall into two groups apposition eyes, which form multiple inverted images, and superposition eyes, which form a single erect image.24 Compound eyes are common in arthropods, and are also present in annelids and some bivalvedd molluscs.25 Compound eyes, in arthropods at least, grow at their margins by the addition of new ommatidia.26 expression of the ommatidia of apposition compound eyesedit Apposition eyesApposition eyes are the most common form of eye, and are presumably the ancestral form of compound eye. They are found in all arthropod groups, although they may have evolved more than once within this phylum.1 Some annelids and bivalves also have apposition eyes. They are also possessed by Limulus, the horseshoe crab, and there are suggestions that other chelicerates developed their simple eyes by reduction from a compound head start point.1 (Some caterpillars appear to have evolved compound eyes from simple eyes in the opposite fashion.) Apposition eyes work by gathering a number of images, one from each eye, and combining them in the brain, with each eye typically contributing a single point of information.The typical apposition eye has a lens focusing light from one direction on the rhabdom, while light from other directions is absorbed by the dark wall of the ommatidium. In the other kind of apposition eye, found in the Strepsiptera, lenses are not fused to one another, and each forms an entire image these images are combined in the brain. This is called the schizochroal compound eye or the neural superposition eye. Because images are combined additively, this arrangement allows vision under lower light levels.1 editSuperposition eyesThe second type is named the superposition eye. The superposition eye is divided into three types the refracting, the reflecting and the parabolic superposition eye. The refracting superposition eye has a gap b etween the lens and the rhabdom, and no side wall. Each lens takes light at an angle to its axis and reflects it to the same angle on the other side. The result is an image at half the radius of the eye, which is where the tips of the rhabdoms are. This kind is used mostly by nocturnal insects. In the parabolic superposition compound eye type, seen in arthropods such as mayflies, the parabolic surfaces of the inside of each facet focus light from a reflector to a sensor array. Long-bodied decapod crustaceans such as shrimp, prawns, crayfish and lobsters are alone in having reflecting superposition eyes, which also have a transparent gap but use corner mirrors instead of lenses. editParabolic superpositionThis eye type functions by refracting light, then using a parabolic mirror to focus the image it combines features of superposition and apposition eyes.9 editOtherThe compound eyes of a dragonfly close fliers like flies or honey bees, or prey-catching insects like praying mantis or dragonflies, have specialized zones of ommatidia organized into a fovea area which gives piercing vision. In the acute zone the eyes are flattened and the facets larger. The flattening allows more ommatidia to receive light from a spot and therefore higher resolution. There are some exceptions from the types mentioned above. Some insects have a so-called single lens compound eye, a transitional type which is something between a superposition type of the multi-lens compound eye and the single lens eye found in animals with simple eyes. Then there is the mysid shrimp Dioptromysis paucispinosa.The shrimp has an eye of the refracting superposition type, in the rear behind this in each eye there is a single large facet that is three times in diameter the others in the eye and behind this is an enlarged crystalline cone. This projects an upright image on a specialized retina. The resulting eye is a mixture of a simple eye within a compound eye. Another version is the pseudofaceted eye, a s seen in Scutigera. This type of eye consists of a cluster of numerous ocelli on each side of the head, organized in a way that resembles a true compound eye. The body of Ophiocoma wendtii, a type of brittle star, is covered with ommatidia, turning its whole discase into a compound eye. The same is true of many chitons. editNutrients of the eyeThe cilial body is triangular in prospecttal section and is coated by a double layer, the ciliary epithelium. The inner layer is transparent and covers the vitreous body, and is continuous from the neural tissue of the retina. The outer layer is highly blushered, continuous with the retinal key epithelium, and constitutes the cells of the dilator muscle. The vitreous is the transparent, colorless, gelatinous mass that fills the space between the lens of the eye and the retina lining the back of the eye.27 It is produced by certain retinal cells.It is of rather similar composition to the cornea, but cops very few cells (mostly phagocytes which remove unwanted cellular debris in the visual field, as well as the hyalocytes of Balazs of the surface of the vitreous, which employ the hyaluronic acid), no blood vessels, and 98-99% of its volume is water (as opposed to 75% in the cornea) with salts, sugars, vitrosin (a type of collagen), a network of collagen type II fibers with the mucopolysaccharide hyaluronic acid, and also a wide array of proteins in micro amounts. Amazingly, with so little solid matter, it tautly holds the eye. editRelationship to life requirementsEyes are generally adapted to the environment and life requirements of the organism which bears them. For instance, the distribution of photoreceptors tends to match the area in which the highest acuity is required, with horizon-scanning organisms, such as those that live on the African plains, having a horizontal line of high-density ganglia, while tree-dwelling creatures which require good all-round vision tend to have a symmetrical distribution of gangl ia, with acuity decreasing outwards from the centre. Of course, for most eye types, it is impossible to variegate from a spherical form, so only the density of optical receptors can be altered. In organisms with compound eyes, it is the number of ommatidia rather than ganglia that reflects the region of highest data acquisition.123-4 opthalmic superposition eyes are constrained to a spherical shape, but other forms of compound eyes may deform to a shape where more ommatidia are aligned to, say, the horizon, without altering the size or density of individual ommatidia.28Eyes of horizon-scanning organisms have stalks so they can be easily aligned to the horizon when this is inclined, for example if the animal is on a slope.29 An extension of this concept is that the eyes of predators typically have a zone of very acute vision at their centre, to assist in the identification of prey.28 In deep water organisms, it may not be the centre of the eye that is enlarged. The hyperiid amphipod s are deep water animals that cater on organisms above them. Their eyes are almost divided into two, with the upper region thought to be involved in detecting the silhouettes of potential preyor predatorsagainst the faint light of the sky above. Accordingly, deeper water hyperiids, where the light against which the silhouettes must be compared is dimmer, have larger upper-eyes, and may lose the lower portion of their eyes altogether.28Depth perception can be enhanced by having eyes which are enlarged in one direction distorting the eye slightly allows the aloofness to the object to be estimated with a high degree of accuracy.9 Acuity is higher among male organisms that mate in mid-air, as they need to be able to spot and assess potential mates against a very large backdrop.28 On the other hand, the eyes of organisms which operate in low light levels, such as around dawn and dusk or in deep water, tend to be larger to increase the amount of light that can be captured.28 It is not o nly the shape of the eye that may be affected by lifestyle. Eyes can be the most visible parts of organisms, and this can act as a pressure on organisms to have more transparent eyes at the cost of function.28 Eyes may be mounted on stalks to provide better all-round vision, by lifting them above an organisms carapace this also allows them to track predators or prey without moving the head.9 editVisual acuityA hawks eyeVisual acuity, or resolving power, is the ability to distinguish fine detail and is the property of cones.30 It is often footstepd in cycles per degree (CPD), which measures an angular resolution, or how much an eye can differentiate one object from another in terms of visual angles. Resolution in CPD can be measured by bar charts of different numbers of white/black stripe cycles. For example, if each pattern is 1.75 cm wide and is placed at 1 m surmount from the eye, it will subtend an angle of 1 degree, so the number of white/black bar pairs on the pattern will be a measure of the cycles per degree of that pattern. The highest such number that the eye can resolve as stripes, or distinguish from a gray block, is then the measurement of visual acuity of the eye.For a human eye with excellent acuity, the maximum theoretical resolution is 50 CPD31 (1.2 second per line pair, or a 0.35 mm line pair, at 1 m). A rat can resolve only about 1 to 2 CPD.32 A horse has higher acuity through most of the visual field of its eyes than a human has, but does not match the high acuity of the human eyes central fovea region. Spherical aberration limits the resolution of a 7 mm pupil to about 3 arcminutes per line pair. At a pupil diameter of 3 mm, the spherical aberration is greatly reduced, resulting in an improved resolution of approximately 1.7 arcminutes per line pair.33 A resolution of 2 arcminutes per line pair, equivalent to a 1 arcminute gap in an optotype, corresponds to 20/20 (normal vision) in humans. editPerception of coloursColour vision is the fa culty of the organism to distinguish lights of different spectral qualities.34 all told organisms are restricted to a small range of electromagnetic spectrum this varies from creature to creature, but is mainly between 400 and 700 nm.35 This is a rather small section of the electromagnetic spectrum, probably reflecting the submarine evolution of the organ water blocks out all but two small windows of the EM spectrum, and there has been no evolutionary pressure among land animals to broaden this range.36 The most sensitive pigment, rhodopsin, has a circular response at 500 nm.37 Small changes to the genes coding for this protein can tweak the peak response by a few nm2 pigments in the lens can also filter incoming light, changing the peak response.2 Many organisms are unable to discriminate between colours, seeing instead in shades of grey color vision necessitates a range of pigment cells which are primarily sensitive to smaller ranges of the spectrum.In primates, geckos, and othe r organisms, these take the form of cone cells, from which the more sensitive rod cells evolved.37 Even if organisms are physically capable of sharp different colours, this does not necessarily mean that they can perceive the different colours only with behavioural tests can this be deduced.2 Most organisms with colour vision are able to detect ultraviolet light. This high energy light can be damaging to receptor cells. With a few exceptions (snakes, placental mammals), most organisms avoid these effects by having absorbent oil droplets around their cone cells. The alternative, developed by organisms that had lost these oil droplets in the course of evolution, is to make the lens impervious to UV light this precludes the possibility of any UV light being detected, as it does not even reach the retina.37 editRods and conesThe retina contains two major types of light-sensitive photoreceptor cells used for vision the rods and the cones. Rods cannot distinguish colours, but are respon sible for low-light (scotopic) monochrome (black-and-white) vision they work well in dim light as they contain a pigment, rhodopsin (visual purple), which is sensitive at low light intensity, but saturates at higher (photopic) intensities. Rods are distributed throughout the retina but there are no(prenominal) at the fovea and none at the blind spot. Rod density is greater in the peripheral retina than in the central retina. retinal cones are responsible for colour vision.They require brighter light to function than rods require. In humans, there are three types of cones, maximally sensitive to long-wavelength, medium-wavelength, and short-wavelength light (often referred to as red, green, and blue, respectively, though the sensitivity peaks are not actually at these colours). The colour seen is the combined effect of stimuli to, and responses from, these three types of cone cells. Cones are mostly concentrated in and near the fovea. Only a few are present at the sides of the reti na. Objects are seen most sharply in focus when their images fall on the fovea, as when one looks at an object directly. Cone cells and rods are connected through intermediate cells in the retina to nerve fibres of the optic nerve. When rods and cones are stimulated by light, the nerves send off impulses through these fibres to the brain.37 editPigmentationThe pigment molecules used in the eye are various, but can be used to define the evolutionary distance between different groups, and can also be an aid in determining which are closely related although problems of convergence do exist.37 Opsins are the pigments involved in photoreception. Other pigments, such as melanin, are used to shield the photoreceptor cells from light leaking in from the sides. The opsin protein group evolved long before the last common ancestor of animals, and has continued to diversify since.2 There are two types of opsin involved in vision c-opsins, which are associated with ciliary-type photoreceptor ce lls, and r-opsins, associated with rhabdomeric photoreceptor cells.38 The eyes of vertebrates usually contain cilliary cells with c-opsins, and (bilaterian) invertebrates have rhabdomeric cells in the eye with r-opsins. However, some ganglion cells of vertebrates express r-opsins, suggesting that their ancestors used this pigment in vision, and that remnants survive in the eyes.38Likewise, c-opsins have been found to be expressed in the brain of some invertebrates. They may have been expressed in ciliary cells of larval eyes, which were subsequently resorbed into the brain on metamorphosis to the adult form.38 C-opsins are also found in some derived bilaterian-invertebrate eyes, such as the pallial eyes of the bivalve molluscs however, the lateral eyes (which were presumably the ancestral type for this group, if eyes evolved once there) always use r-opsins.38 Cnidaria, which are an outgroup to the taxa mentioned above, express c-opsins but r-opsins are yet to be found in this group .38 Incidentally, the melanin produced in the cnidaria is produced in the same fashion as that in vertebrates, suggesting the common descent of this pigment.38

Epistemology and Knowledge Essay Example for Free

Epistemology and Knowledge EssayEpistemology, or the study of neckledge, requires the scholar analyze the what, how, and whys of their own knowledge. Asking these questions of themselves is essentially applying that which they drive learned. There atomic number 18 diverse origins of knowledge as patternualized by philosophers, educators, and scientists. Early philosophers defined knowledge as justified true belief (Cooper, pg. 23). In order for an individual to know something it must be true, he or she must believe it, and the belief in it must be justified or rationally reasonable. Later, early modern-day philosophers required knowledge to be proven and absolute.The scientific method was employed to provide proof for ideas and beliefs. The means by which knowledge is acquired varies. Feldman cites sources of knowledge as perception, well(p) testimony, memory, reasoning, and introspection (Feldman, 2003). As an educator, instructing primary age assimilators on a daily ba sis, I must non only have great insight into what I believe, but I also must have insight into my students knowledge as well. Instructors enquire to know a number of things intimately their students, such as Do the students have adequate prior knowledge to understand the refreshing material being presented?Are the students sufficiently motivated to operate on in the cognitive problems required of them? Does the information fit an existing scheme of knowledge or allow it require some alteration of current correspondence? Understanding what my student know and at what depth they are able to apply that knowledge guides my teaching method. My natural curiosity, a natural inclination for question, and a need for answers motivate the search for explanations. Knowledge and wisdom give an understanding of our position, role, and function in the world.Achterbergh and Vriens (2002) stated, The role of knowledge in generating appropriate implements is that it serves as a scope for a rticulating possible courses of action (articulation), for judging whether courses of action will yielded the intended result and for using this appreciation in selecting among them (selection), for deciding how actions should be implemented and for actually implementing action (implementation) (pg. 223). Knowledge enables interpretation of experiences, predictions of consequences, and provides the ability to make informed decisions.My own personal epistemology is a product of each of these views. Personal experiences have a major determine on beliefs and should be an acceptable source of knowledge but not the only consideration when acquiring knowledge. There is also a pip for the scientific method which offers proven info to base knowledge. For me, knowledge is a product of reasoning (Feldman, 2003). I derive knowledge from information imported through different modes and from various sources, such as personal experiences, advice from experts, and data.These inputs of informat ion are cognitively processed and filtered with the reference to past experience and prior knowledge to become new justified true beliefs (Cooper, ). Thus, knowledge acquisition is a process involving the collection of raw data or information, reasoning, and judgment making. For example, after my students have taken a test, I learn at the data, think about the patterns in the data, or the lack of a pattern using prior knowledge and experiences as a filter. Finally, I decide what my next step or strategy will be.Do I need to re study the subject beca purpose the pattern suggests that most of my students did not amply understand the skill or concept? Or do I move on to another more complex skill or concept because my students have proven themselves knowledgeable? It is in this way that I acquire knowledge and apply that knowledge to planning lessons for my students. Many of my colleagues rely solely on the scientific method to make decisions in regards to student learning. They are satisfied with looking at a spreadsheet full of data and believe that it tells the complete study in regards to students.They are also under the assumption that scores derived from a series of multiple choice tests given on a mountain of skills will reveal if a student has acquired the desired knowledge. Basing grades on these tests is also appropriate. I do not believe that this tells the full story of my students knowledge. These tests whitethorn demonstrate the ability to regurgitate this knowledge within a certain context, but out of this context this may not be true. I do, however, use this data to do inform many of my decisions, however, I do not make decisions based exclusively on this data.There must be a balanceof reasoning, using my 16 twelvemonths of experiences and training, as well as raw data tells a more complete story of my students knowledge and abilities. I have worked for Porterville matching School District (PUSD), in Porterville, California, my entire career . PUSDs vision and mission statements read as follows PUSD students will have the skills and knowledge to be prepared for college and career and to make a positive impact in a dynamic global society. The mission of PUSD is to provide students a dynamic, engaging and in force(p) educational experience that prepares them with the skills to be productive citizens in a global society. As a result, it is perceived that all students will break-dance and demonstrate critical thinking and problem solving skills cultural awareness and the ability of collaborate with diverse groups effective communication skills of listening, speaking and writing creativity and innovation leadership, self-management and organizational skills obtained through real world applications and community involvement (and) the ability to navigate the global world of work and further their education (Porterville, 2012). Porterville Unified (PUSD) has given explicit expectations for what students should know at the en d of their educational career with the district, how students get to these end goals is a little less clear and left to the judgment of the teachers. There are some expectations of teachers and lessons presented to students given by the district. Many professional development hours have been spent on instructing teachers about the specific things that administrators will look for as they do brief observations of classroom instruction.The expectations include learn explicitly to the essential standards posting of the essential standard being taught 80% student exercise during the lesson display of exemplary work higher order questioning and thinking skills. Administrators collect this data and share it with grade levels and school wide to help teachers revolve around on areas that are lacking. Administrator walk-throughs give a quick snap shot of the type of education and learning taking place during a lesson and they help to build a holistic picture of the teaching methods and r esources being used (Hetzner, 2011).PUSD has placed an emphasis on the strategies needed for effective lessons and, in turn, effective student learning. As a 4th grade teacher for Porterville Unified School District, my task is to create daily lesson plans that serve to guide me as I teach my students. My first step in creating these lessons is to determine my students level of prior knowledge. I can accomplish this by looking at dinner dress and informal assessments and data. Observation of this data gives me a better understanding of what my next steps with my student should be.In some cases, I need to go endure and reteach skills, while in other cases I can teach my students a new skill. I have to make an informed decision as to what cognitive level I need to teach to next. Awareness of how my students are performing as well as where I need to be as far-off as pacing and staying on track to get through all the skills needed to be taught within the year are vital to my daily ta sk as a 4th grade teacher. As I compare my personal epistemology with that of my district, I realize that I spend more time assessing data after the lesson has been taught while the district places more emphasis on data collected during a lesson.Both of these approaches are valuable and, in fact, the district does place value on the end result (i. e. State test scores), however, there is little action that can take place after the end of the year data is collected. PUSD has placed and emphasis on good instruction because they see it as the road to a good education, as well as, the skills and goals they have set in the mission and vision statements. Our epistemologies align in that we both rely on the research of experts.I trust, as does PUSD, that the data given by experts is valuable to our own knowledge and it should guide how I teach my students. The district also views its teachers as experts in the field and has given many freedoms in the presentation and uses of resources whe n teaching students. As I reflect on my school districts focus as compared to me I realize that even though our epistemologies are not exactly line up we are aligned in our focus of the students. Students come first. That means I will use whichever strategies I need to in order to create effective student learning.Reviewing test scores and planning lessons are vital to student learning, however, I have been so centered on what I am teaching that my students have not been engaged as well as they could be and thus have not learned the subject matters to their full potential. Also, although pacing is important, it should not be of top priority. Top priority should be assessing my students during the lesson and changing strategies, or even the skills being taught, if my students are not engaged.There is no point in plowing through a lesson if the majority of my students are not listening to what is being taught. This new insight will definitely help to drive my instruction and will hel p make me a more effective teacher. References Achterbergh,J. , Vriens, D. (May-June 2002). Managing viable knowledge. Systems Research and Behavioral Science. V19i3p223 (19). Cooper, D. E. (Ed. ). (1999). Epistemology The classic readings. Malden, MA Blackwell. Feldman R. (2003). Epistemology.Upper Saddle River, NJ apprentice Hall. Hetzner, Amy, 2011. Walk-throughs give school administrators firsthand view of staff in action. JSOnline Milwaukee, Wisconsin Journal Sentinel. May 14, 2011. Retrieved on November 20, 2012 from http//www. jsonline. com/news/education/121843078. html Porterville Unified School District, 2012 . PUSD great deal and mission statements. Retrieved on November 20, 2012 from http//dnn. portervilleschools. org/dotnetnuke/District/VisionMission. aspx.

Dream Job And Personal Quality English Language Essay

Dream Job And Personal Quality English Language Essay1. a) What ar the private qualities that you should score to help you obtain the argument of your dreams? To do that, identify the slew around you who can help you acquire the t separatelying that you argon seeking to pull in a complete perspective.b) Prep be a list of question (minimum 8) that you would ask these people2. Rec exclusively in all a counterpoint that you have been involved in latelya. Identify the primary source of the contrast describedb. Do you think the other party would agree about the primary source of the conflict? wherefore or why non?c. Identify all secondary sources of the conflictd. How did each dimension affect the way the participant approached the conflict?2.0 Intro to dividing line communicationBusiness communication is a process that a sender and recipient exchange information through a medium which go out offspring a shared feedback. In the process of communicating, at first the sende r has an view need to inform another person. Secondly, the sender encodes the idea into a communicate so that the message can travels over channel which the channel is the medium the message is travel by mouth up by the senders mouth. Then the receiver decodes the message by hearing the message by exploitation the ears. After that, there bequeath be a feedback travels back to the sender to decode, if the sender got any possible additional feedback, and so it go out transfer back to the receiver.The most common way that they communicate is by speaking, visual images, body language and writing. And the master(prenominal) goals of communicate is to change behavior, to get action, to get and give information, to ensure understanding and to persuade. In communication also have two types of communication which is internal and outer communication, and inside the internal and external also got formal channels and informal channels. Each communication which also have their make net work to communicate, there are four network to communicate. Chain network, circle network, star network and wheel network is the network of their information exchange.3.0 Intro to dream craft and individualised timberlandIn this world there are galore(postnominal) transmission lines to choose to be, and each job has its induce special and its personality. Also each job also unavoidably its own personal quality to achieve the jobs personality. My dream job is to be a pilot the major part of personal quality of my dream job is passionate and effective communication.It is because that personal quality progeny straightly affect the work performance, when working there is more personal qualities are needed. Personal qualities are quasi(prenominal) to the skills while in the working place, it shows that how you do to enhance your working performance. fleck personal qualities are similar to skill set of working performance, it is also shows that your own personal characteristic s individually. It is also an aspect of your character.4.0 Personal qualitiesPersonal qualities are the personality and attitude to meet against all of your work and life. There are also many types of personal qualities, the main thing to control the personal quality that is personality, like attitude, passionate and other. Different personality leave also lead to a diverse type of personal quality changes.4.0.1 Passionate Effective CommunicationThe job of my dreams is to be a pilot. To be a pilot, I should also have the personal qualities to obtain the job qualification. So, what is the personal qualities should I have? To be a pilot, the first personal qualities I should have is the passionate, if I work this job, I must(prenominal) have to be passionate about the job, when I work cannot be so cool and not to communicate with other colleague.4.0.2 Computer Literacy Technology Literacy at once in 21st century, one of the personal qualities that most employers wanted is that, a person will have a computer and technical literacy. It is because nowadays close all jobs now require an understanding, ranging from basic to advance of computer software, spreadsheets, e-mail, and internet navigation. Without the knowledge of computer literacy, then they will more on manpower to work. So as my dream job is to be a pilot, if I dont have the computer literacy, then the device and system in the plane will cannot be used. When the system of the plane may goes wrong, we also can solve it quickly. Speaking of which, problem-solving also another personal qualities a pilot should have. When a pilot in the air has met some problem, he must solve it quick and have a critical thinking to control the chaos and conquer the challenges.4.0.3 Attitude interpersonal AbilitiesAs a pilot, attitude also is an important thing on personal qualities, without the attitude, they will think that youre bad. So when serving them, the attitude must be polite and kickoff verbalize. Good a ttitude will evade conflict. Interpersonal abilities are also a personal quality by building kind or management of the relationship to everyone, as a pilot interpersonal ability is cannot be less. When meet a moody customer, we also need to have a good attitude to them making a good relationship by having interpersonal ability to communicate with him.4.0.4 Leadership TeamworkTeamwork is to join forces with your colleague when is in flight, it is also consider to leadership when the flight got any problem, as a leader of the flight it must be control the crowd on the plane, so must have leadership that offer the stewardess to control the crowd to calm down. Everyone in the plane must be calm down, as a leader cannot be panic, so leader must keep steady and stay cool when any problems come.4.0.5 Positive thinking ConfidenceEvery job also needs these kinds of personal qualities, without it then your work cannot proceed. But as a pilot, these personal qualities cannot be less, if a pilot is having negative thought and miss of confidence, then his decision will be a failure to be done. It is because on a flight, there is many humans life in your hand. one and further(a) failure will lead to a tragedy. To be positive thinking then will have the critical thinking as al shipway, when danger comes. vigour can block your way when in positive thinking.4.0.6 Management ResponsibilityAs a pilot, before flight departure must be strong planned the course to flight in the air, without the management of the flight then the time to reach the place will cannot be accurate. If management is bad, the responsibility also will be very bad. As a pilot, must be responsible to the time management and everything. When things go wrong on the flight, the pilot will be responsible to everything.4.1 Person who can give me information and complete perspectiveThe people who can help me acquire this personal quality information are the friends or family that is experience in working as a pilot or stewardess. We also can ask the pilot or stewardess about the personal quality and their mentality when their work. By asking them how they maintain the personal quality and how to enhance.All that information is getting from my friends and pilot are only can do as a reference. The information that I get from my survey, it is also based on their experience to answer my question, their answer only tolerate my question to achieve my complete perspective.4.2 Questions would ask people for information1. What personal quality should be acquired?_____________________________________________________________________2. How do you use the opportunities to help you achieve your dream job?_____________________________________________________________________3. When there are obstacles, how you solve it?_____________________________________________________________________4. How to ameliorate the personal quality?____________________________________________________________________ _5. Which personal quality is needed the most?_____________________________________________________________________6. When your dream job is needed more time, you will forfeit or continue? Why?_____________________________________________________________________7. When is your starting to brace up to chase your dream job?_____________________________________________________________________8. Which personal quality makes you doesnt give up?_____________________________________________________________________5.0 resultant RecommendationAs my conclusion, no matter which job to be taken, all personal qualities are also needed to be used. So it is conclude that, all works are also need all of the personal qualities. Without those personal qualities, the work performance and working situation will also bad and will not be a successful person.Not every person in every situation also can do their job with their own personal quality, but they still can improve their personal quality. By im prove their personal quality they first can control their temper to improve their personal quality. It is because that, most of them cannot withstand their temper so that they will do something madness so that when their work, the personal quality of them will not be so perfect anymore.So when working, personal quality and skill set must be use, to improve on the working performance. While your work performance are good, so that when have a communication with colleague who are work with you will be very good. Also changing information will be very good for improve the result.6.0 Intro of conflict that have been involved recentlyConflict is an argument and disagreement which two or more parties are involving the threat of their needs, concerns or interests. Conflict will always appear especially at working place, it is because there are sure will be many arguments or disagreements.Conflict also have a few categories which is the topic or subject at hand, it is also the common conflic t. It is means by when in the workplace, the scheduling or the budgeting problem. Secondly, is the process, when working no matter is in a group or solo, it will also shows that two or more parties will show their best to do, but only that are some problem on one of them maybe weak, and another will have stronger, so that conflict happens. Relational issues and ego are also one of the conflicts.There are many causes of conflict, misunderstanding, personality clashes, and competition for resources, authority issues, and lack of cooperation, difference over methods, low performance and the value or goal difference. These causes are making conflict in everywhere, no matter in what place, there are many conflict especially in working place.I have a conflict recently which is while I was in a club, I was an activity planner, which I was with four members inside them include me. I was having an idea, another one of us also having an idea, but our both opinion was different. And the presid ent is buying my idea, not buying another partners idea. So that he doesnt uphold with us and this is the conflict that we have it.7.0 FindingsPrimary source is a topic which is under investigation with direct evince. The spot of all conflict, information is getting right through interview. In my conflict, the primary source is that we are having different opinion. After that, my colleague will not abet with us, so that it will lead our mission will may not be accomplish.In the club, we have four activity planner, although all also have own idea. But all these years, we all also support on one idea, but this time another partner in the club dont cooperate just because of the president not buying his idea, so he doesnt want to be cooperative.Secondary source is a topic which is under investigation with the evidence is getting through another person. The detail and information are may not be true and not correctly, the content of the information may be wrong. In my conflict, the s econdary source is that although my colleagues idea, the president doesnt buy it, then he will wanted to demolish my idea and plan.In the club, he is already not cooperating with us, but still there are rumors that he wants to demolish my idea and planning. While this is a secondary source, the news is getting from another person, so it may be true or false.As in the primary source, another party also agrees the primary source of the conflict he is not cooperate and because of the president not buying his idea. And there are secondary source which is heard by another person, and the news is that he want to demolish my idea and destroy my plan. So he is agreeing that the primary source, it is because he is sure to not cooperate with my planning.8.0 Approached to conflictWhile facing the conflict, there are several ways to react and each of the approach will have many different results. There are many ways to facing the conflict Avoiding, accommodation, competition, collaboration and via media is the way to facing the conflict.While these are the ways to solve the conflict, this is the negotiating method to solve the conflict. Except for this, there is more stem to solve the conflict negotiating strategies are also one of the ways to solve the conflict. In negotiating strategies is using win-win strategies, win-lose strategies, lose-win strategies, lose-lose strategies.There are many ways to solve the conflict. There are method strategies, negotiating styles and negotiating method. And in my conflict, negotiating methods are good to solve the conflict. So that the method I choose to solve the conflict is negotiating method.8.1 Negotiating MethodCompromiseBy using the compromise method, each of the party need to sacrifices something that he or she is seeking to gain on agreement. After compromise, both parties are also willing to cooperate with each other, so that it will lead to a win-win solution.CollaborationBy using the collaboration method, both of the par ties are needed to commit to work together to resolve the conflicts betwixt them. After resolve the problems, then making their own benefits or profits, it will lead to a win-win solution.CompetitionBy using competition method, both parties will fight for each other for their own good. This method is fast and decisive action to resolve the conflict. But in the end, it will lead to a win-lose solution which the initial person who makes conflict will get the benefits.AccommodatingBy using accommodating method, it is giving a space between them, and maintains a capital of New Hampshire way to resolve the conflict. So the initial person who makes conflict will sacrifice own principle and making harmony. It will lead to lose-win solution.Withdrawal and escapeBy using withdrawal and avoidance method, both parties also choose to let go the conflict, and by using this method, it will lead to lose-lose solution. While using withdrawal and avoidance method, most of the result if will need other person to investigate.9.0 Conclusion of conflict managementAs my conclusion, this conflict can be solving by using many method, strategies and many more. For solving every conflict, the best solution to solve the conflict while using negotiating method is compromise or collaboration. It is because that these two methods will lead to win-win solution.Compromise is that both parties willing to sacrifices one of their aim, so that can cooperate to work together to obtain a good outcome and result. While compromise is both parties sacrifices something, collaboration is both of the parties work together but the gaining of the benefits is belong on their choice, after the cooperation, then will lead to win-win solution which both also get their benefits.10.0 Conclusion RecommendationAs for conclusion in business communication, it is normally use to communicate with people in all around the world. Communication is very important to everyone else, it is because that, communicate is e veryones way to exchange their information and their thought.Communication are not only got speaking to communicate. Visual images, body language and writing are also the common way to communicate with people. And each of the communication methods also have different ideas and result of what detail and information you heard, you see or you get. It is depends on the people that how he or she absorb and get to know the information and detail about something.While both parties communicating, there are many common communications error sure will occur. For example, multitasking while listening from another, while someone is asking something, then ask one by one should be alright with the communication, but if ask something which the other parties doesnt have the chance to answer that question, then it will run low a communication failure. Finishing other sentences, preparing our response before someone has completed speaking, filtering content or meaning based on the speaker, speaking f or other. This is all the communications common error that will always occur.For recommendation, communicate slowly and with the voice of interesting waves, it is because no one likes to hear a voice which is the voice is high pitch or low pitch sound.

Role Of Exim Bank Growth Of Foreign Trade Economics Essay

Role Of Exim coin cuss Growth Of foreign shift Economics EssayIntroduction of IndustryAs we know that the ministry of commerce and Industry is the just about consequenceant organ concerned with the promotion and regulation of foreign make out in India. The Ministry has an elabo value organizational garb up to look aft(prenominal) the unhomogeneous aspects of trade. Its two important offices concerned with trade are the Directorate General of abroad Trade (DGFT) and the Directorate General of Commercial Intelligence and Statistics (DGCIS). DGFT is responsible for implementing the Foreign Trade Policy/Exim Policy with the main objective of promoting Indian tradeings. It overly issues licenses to tradeers and monitors their corresponding obligations through a network of regional offices. DGCIS is entrusted with the work of collecting, compiling and produce/ disseminating trade statistics and various types of commercialised instruction required by the policy makers, rese archers, importers, exporters, traders as well as altogether oversea buyers.Directorate of Industries Commerce is charged with the responsibilities of facilitating industrial growth in the country by providing funding for Infrastructure in the make of industrial estates, incentives for capital enthronization and other subsidies. It provides the entrepreneur, power, land and water, besides bureau of fiscal incentives.Foreign trade has played a crucial role in Indias economy growth. The composition and direction of Indias foreign trade has undergone substantial changes, particularly, after the liberalization process which began in the early 1990s. Our major(ip) exports now includes manufacturing goods such(prenominal) as Engineering Goods, Petroleum Products, Chemicals Related Products, Gems Jewellery, Textiles, electronic Goods, etc. which constitute over 80 per cent of our export basket. On the other hand, major import items constitute capital goods and intermediates which non only support the manufacturing welkin but also supply raw-materials for the export oriented units. Over the years, Indias trade with countries of Asia ASEAN and Africa has gone up substantially. Apart from that, India is now a major player in global affair system and all the major sectors of Indian economy are linked to world outside either directly or indirectly through supranational trade.Introduction of TopicExim desire (India)Exim depository financial institution (full name The trade- bit Bank of India) is an Indian government-owned fiscal institution for the public sector created by an Act of the Parliament of India the exportation-Import Bank of India Act 1981. Exim Bank is managed by a Board of Directors, which has representatives from the political sympathies, Reserve Bank of India, Export Credit Guarantee Corporation of India (ECGC), a financial institution, public sector banks, and the business community. The Banks functions are segmented into several operati ng groups including Corporate Banking company which handles a variety of financing programmes for Export point Units (eous), Importers, and abroad coronation funds by Indian companies.Project pay / Trade Finance Group handles the entire range of export recognize function such as suppliers credit, pre-shipment credit, buyers credit, finance for export of projects consultancy services, guarantees, forfeiting, etc. Lines of Credit Group Lines of Credit (LOC) is a financing mechanism and export transactions in the agricultural sector for financing. Small and Medium Enterprises Group to the specific financing requirements of export oriented smes. The group handles credit proposals from smes under various lending programmes of the Bank. Export Services Group offers variety of advisory and value-added information services aimed at investment promotion Fee based Export Marketing Services Bank offers assistance to Corporate Affairs.Service CategoryGovernment to Business (G2B)Service TitleExport Import Data BankService State/MinistryMinistry of Commerce and IndustryService DescriptionOne pass on get the Trade statistics both import and export detailsService LanguageEnglishMinister of Commerce and IndustryShri Anand SharmaIt is set up by an act of parliament in September 1981Wholly owned by government of indiaCommenced operations in march 1982Apex financial institutionObjectives for providing financial assistance to exporters and importers, and for functioning as the principal financial institution for coordinating the working of institutions engaged in financing export and import of goods and services with a view to promoting the countrys international trade shall act on business principles with due regard to public interestExim Policy FacilitiesThe existing export promotion schemes such as Export Promotion ceiling Goods Scheme, Duty Exemption and Remission Scheme, Scheme for Gems and Jewellery Exports, EHTP and SEZ Schemes have been further strengthened and simplified. The various relaxations provided under the in a higher place Schemes are given over belowExport Promotion Capital Goods Scheme (EPCG)Duty Exemption and Remission SchemeGems and Jewellery ExportsSpecial Economic ZonesElectronic Hardware Technology ParksOther FacilitiesChemicals and PharmaceuticalsProjectsStrategic Package for Status HoldersNeutralizing high fuel costsDiversification of marketsNorth easterlyern States, Sikkim and Jammu KashmirRe-location of industriesReduction in transaction time costBANKS FUNCTIONSThe Banks functions are segmented into several operating groups includingCorporate Banking Group which handles a variety of financing programmes for Export Oriented Units (EOUs), Importers, and overseas investment by Indian companies. Project Finance / Trade Finance Group handles the entire range of export credit services such as suppliers credit, pre-shipment credit, buyers credit, finance for export of projects consultancy services, guarantees, forfaiti ng etc.Lines of Credit Group Lines of Credit (LOC) is a financing mechanism that provides a safe mode of non-recourse financing option to Indian exporters, especially to SMEs, and serves as an effective market door counsel tool.Agriculture Business Group, to spearhead the initiative to promote and support Agri-exports. The Group handles projects and export transactions in the agricultural sector for financing.Small and Medium Enterprises Group to the specific financing requirements of export oriented SMEs. The group handles credit proposals from SMEs under various lending programmes of the Bank.Export Services Group offers variety of advisory and value-added information services aimed at investment promotion Fee based Export Marketing Services Bank offers assistance to Indian companies, to enable them establish their wares in overseas markets.Besides these, the Support Services groups, which include Research Planning, Corporate Finance, Loan Recovery, Internal Audit, counsel Inf ormation Services, Information Technology, Legal, Human Resources Management and Corporate affairs.RESEARCH METHODOLOGYGenerally research is considered as an endeavor to arrive at the answer to gifted and practical problem through the application of scientific method to the acknowledge universe. It is movement from known to unknown.My research based on the secondary resources. The data taken from the different websites (Indian govt.,Exim bank policy, Foreign trade).Review of LiteratureIndias export performance /April-august, 2004-05/ Nimmala Amharic- In this article that writer have a research on the government issue of Indias export performance. And he found in his research that Indians foreign trade are increasing year by year in both find of export and import. But total trade deficit is a big problem of Indian economy. And he also find in their research that well-nigh of the sector has grew in terms of export such as Automobiles, Gems Jewellery, and Textiles.OBJECTIVESTo kn ow the Role of EXIM Bank in the growth of Foreign Trade.To know the various services provided by the EXIM banks which support in foreign tradeData And FactsTotal Trade of Exports and Imports over the Years in Crore RupeesYearExportsImportsTotal TradeTrade Deficit1990-91325584319375751-106351991-92440424785191893-38091992-935368863375117063-96871993-946975173101142852-33501994-958267489971172645-72971995-96106353122678229031-163251996-97118817138920257737-201031997-98130101154176284277-240751998-99139753178332318085-385791999-2000159561215236374797-556752000-01209018230873434444-273022001-02255137245200454218-361822002-03293367297206552343-420692003-04375340359108652475-657412004-05375340501065876405-1257252005-064564836350131091496-1785302006-075717798405061412286-2687272007-0865586410123121668176-3564482008-09(P)76693513855032072338-538568External Trade with Other Countries during 2007-08 and 2008-09RegionExports (April-Feb)Imports (April-Feb)2007-082008-09(P)2007-08(P)2008-09(P)1. Europe1,33,1511,65,9251,75,3352,23,8131.1 EU countries 271,23,2191,55,2661,27,3151,61,5931.2 Other WE countries9,55310,12347,88162,1151.3 East Europe3795361381062. Africa38,06244,92251,51960,1512.1 Southern Africa13,05812,39317,86829,3772.2 West Africa12,85113,20435,61448,5142.3 Central Africa9341,3721896322.4 East Africa15,12618,6871,1581,1583. America98,9001,14,96679,7801,21,3813.1 North America79,88089,47656,28180,8253.2 Latin America10,01945,49023,49840,5564. Asia and Asean2,96,2873,57,9825,43,5517,39,6224.1 East Asia5,0706,71930,78340,2304.2 ASEAN56,66375,35782,2891,06,4184.3 WANA1,08,9201,44,0392,58,6453,56,7164.4 NE Asia92,97496,8461,64,0302,28,7464.5 South Asia32,65935,0207,8057,5135. CIS Baltics6,1017,62314,23828,7935.1 cars Countries8261,0474191,1575.2 Other CIS Countries5,2756,57713,81827,6366. Unspecified Region1,4824,3462,6664,710Total5,77,8896,96,4988,70,39911,98,360EXPORT citationSEXIM LINES OF CREDIT (LOC)The main role of Exim bank in foreign trade is to give cred it facilities. Exim Bank extends Lines of Credit (LOC) to overseas financial institutions, regional development banks, milkweed butterfly governments and other entities overseas, to enable buyers in those countries, to import goods and services from India on deferred credit terms. The Indian exporters can obtain payment of worthy value from Exim Bank, without recourse to them, against talks of shipping documents. LOC is a financing mechanism that provides a safe mode of non-recourse financing option to Indian exporters, especially to SMEs, and serves as an effective market entry tool. Exim Bank extends LOC, on its own, as well as, at the behest of Government of India. Exim Bank offers the following Export Credit facilities, which can be availed of by Indian companies, commercial banks and overseas entitiesFor Indian Companies executing tightens overseasfor commercial BanksOther Facilities for Indian CompaniesFor Overseas EntitiesFor Indian Companies executing contracts overseasP re-shipment creditExim Banks Pre-shipment Credit facility, in Indian Rupees and foreign currency, provides access to finance at the manufacturing stage enabling exporters to purchase raw materials and other inputs.Suppliers CreditThis facility enables Indian exporters to extend term credit to importers (overseas) of eligible goods at the post-shipment stage.For Project ExportersIndian project exporters incur Rupee expenditure while executing overseas project export contracts i.e. Costs of mobilization/acquisition of materials, personnel and equipment etc. Exim Banks facility helps them meet these expenses.For Exporters of Consultancy and Technological ServicesExim Bank offers a special credit facility to Indian exporters of consultancy and technology services, so that they can, in turn, extend term credit to overseas importersGuarantee FacilitiesIndian companies can avail of these to furnish requisite guarantees to further execution of export contracts and import transactions.How does it work?Exim Bank signs LOC Agreement with overseas Borrower Institution (Borrower) and announces the availability of LOC for utilization, when the Agreement becomes effective.Exporter checks with Exim Bank, available amount under the LOC and quantum of service fee account payable to Exim Bank, if any, and negotiates contract with Importer.Importer approaches the Borrower for plaudit of the contract.Borrower appraises the proposal. If satisfied, approves the contract and refers to Exim Bank for concurrence for inclusion of contract for being financed under the LOC.Exim Bank accords grace to the contract, if in conformity with the terms of LOC. Exim Bank conveys contract approval to the exporter and the Borrower.The Importer arranges remittance of advance payment to the Exporter and also opening of a Letter of Credit, which states that the contract is covered under Exim Banks LOC to the Borrower and reimbursement allow be by Exim Bank for the bailable Value of Credit, upon compliance with stipulated conditions therein.Exporter executes the contract/ships the goods/provides services.Exim Bank/commercial bank in India, designated as the Negotiating Bank negotiates shipping documents and pays the exporter.Exim Bank reimburses the Negotiating Bank, on receipt of valid call for and service fee, as applicable, by debit to the LOC account of the Borrower.Borrower repays Exim Bank on due dates.Exim Bank signs agreement with Borrower and announces when effective.Exporter checks procedures and service fee payable, if any, with Exim Bank and negotiates contract with Importer.Importer consults Borrower and signs contract with exporter.Borrower approves contract.Exim Bank approves contract and advises Borrower and also exporter and his negotiating bank, in India.Importer establishes L/C in favor of Exporter.Exporter ships goods.Exim Bank/commercial bank negotiates shipping documents and pays exporter.EXIM Bank reimburses commercial bank on receipt of claim and de bits LOC account of the Borrower.Borrower repays EXIM Bank on due dates.Lending create by mental act for Export Oriented UnitsTo create and enhance export capabilities of Indian companies.it provide them Term loans in Indian rupees/ foreign currency, Deferred Payment Guarantee for import of capital goods. And in place of that they charged negligible Banks lending rate and 1% of loan amount payable upfront as service charged they provide this facility to following eligible companyUnits set up/proposed to be set up in Export Processing ZonesUnits under the deoxycytidine monophosphate% Export Oriented Units SchemeUnits importing capital goods under Export Promotion Capital Goods SchemeUnits undertaking expansion /modernization /up gradation /diversification programs of existing export oriented units with export orientation of minimum 10% or sales of Rs.5 crores per annum whichever is lowerLending Programme for Overseas Joint Ventures/Wholly Owned Subsidiaries by Indian Companies-To finance by way of impartiality loan to Indian companies for setting up of overseas joint ventures/ wholly owned subsidiariesEligible CompaniesAny Indian promoter making equity investment in an existing company or a new project overseas with the requisite approval for such investment from the Reserve Bank of India (RBI)/Government of India as also from the government and other concerned authorities in the host countryThe total value of the investment by the Indian company does not fall US $ 15 million in respect of Indian investment in SAARC countries and Myanmar total value of investment does not exceed US $ 30 million and in respect of Indian Rupee investment in Nepal and Bhutan, total value of investment does not exceed Rs.120 croresThe amount of investment is up to 25% of annual average export earnings of the company in the preceding three yearsThe amount of investment is repatriated in fully by way of dividends, royalty, technological service fees, etc. Within a period of fiv e years.Refinance to Commercial BanksExim Bank provides 100% refinance to commercial banks in respect of rupee term loans extended by them to Indian Promoter Company for equity contribution in overseas JV/WOS. As per prevailing RBI guidelines, commercial banks can consider loan for equity investment only under Exim Banks Refinance scheme.Equity Investment in Indian Ventures AbroadTo catalyze overseas investment by Indian companies to enhance visibility of Indian overseas ventures.Quantum of Exim Banks equity participationUpton 25% of equity capital of the jvs involving Indian foreign companiesUpton 50% of equity capital in case of wholly owned subsidiaries of Indian companiesSubject to a roof of US $ 5 MN per proposal and remove subject to RBIInvestment CriteriaWhile considering equity investment with Indian companies business in India, weightage will be giving to the followingBackground and track record of Indian and foreign promotersSynergy of overseas operations with business i n IndiaFinancial viability and technical feasibilityReturn on Exims investmentBenefits to India in terms of trade enhancement, technology transfer, and foreign exchange earnings etc.Spin off benefits such as brand marketing and penetration of new markets will also be consideredAsian Countries Investment Partners Programme (ACIP)To promote joint ventures in India between Indian companies companies from Asian countries through four facilities that address different stages of the project cycle. ACIP seeks to catalyze investment flows into India by creation of Joint Ventures in India between Indian companies and companies from East Asian countries. ACIP is proposed to be a funding instrument providing finance at various stages of a Joint Venture project cycle that is to say Sector study, project identification, feasibility study, prototype development, setting up project and technical, managerial assistance.Export Marketing Finance ProgrammeTo create and enhance export capabilities an d international competitiveness of Indian companies. Under the lending programme for Export Marketing Finance, the Bank addresses the term finance requirements for a structural and strategic export marketing and development effort of Indian companiesEligible CompaniesCompany who have a strategic international marketing visualise.Company should have established front in the house servant marketCompany should have satisfactory financials.Interest RatesRupee Term Loans Linked to Exim Banks Minimum Lending RateForeign Currency Term Loans At floating or fixed interest ratesAdditionally interest tax is applicable will be payableService Fee1% of loan amount sanctioned, payable upfront non-refundableExport Product Development ProgrammeTo support systematic export product development plans with focus on industrialized marketsEligible CompaniesEstablished exporting enterprises with product development programme dedicated to exportThe company must also have an established track record and satisfactory financialsProgramme for backing Export Vendor Development (EVD)ObjectiveTo finance export strategic marketer development plans for export companies with a view to enhancing exports through creation, strengthening of backward linkages with vendors.Eligible CompaniesExport companies and Trading HousesManufacturer-exporters with satisfactory track record and financials ,li Companies with strategic plan for vendor development for exports are eligible to seek finance under this programmeCompanies purchasing from vendors finished, semi-finished or intermediate products with the exporter adding value to the product in the form of further processing or marketing themInterest RateInterest Rate linked to Banks Minimum Lending RateSoft loan at 7.5% p.a. (subject to change) subject to maximum of Rs.50 lakhsRepayment PeriodUpton 7 yearsProgramme for Export FacilitationExim Bank offers term finance and non-funded facilities to Indian corporates to create infrastructure facilities to facilitate Indias international trade thereby enhance their export capability.Foreign Currency Pre-Shipment Credit (FCPC)Under this programme, short-term foreign currency finance is available to eligible exporters for financing inputs for export production such as raw materials, components and consumables. The finance is repayable in foreign currency from proceeds of the relative exports.FCPC programme represents other funding source to the exporter for expanding export volumes, particularly of manufactured and value added goods. It eliminates two-way exchange conversion costs and exchange risk, thus enhancing export competitiveness. FCPC can be a cost effective funding source as compared to rupee export credit as well as overseas suppliers credit depending on market conditions for loans under FCPC. As far as commercial banks are concerned, loans availed of from Exim Bank are exempt from Cash Reserve symmetry, Statutory Liquidity Ratio and Incremental Credit-Deposit Ratio requ irements.Eligible BorrowersExporting companiesCommercial Banks for on lending to exporting customersWorking Capital Term Loan Programme for Export Oriented Units (WCTL)WCTL programme seeks to create, enhance export capabilities of Indian companies. Under the Programme, the Bank addresses the working capital (loan component) requirements of export oriented units.Eligible CompaniesUnits set up/proposed to be set up in Export Processing ZonesUnits under the 100% Export Oriented Units SchemeUnits importing capital goods under Export Promotion Capital Goods SchemeUnits undertaking expansion /modernization /up gradation/diversification programs of existing export oriented units with export orientation of 10% of sales or export sales of Rs.5 crores per annum whichever is lower.Bulk Import Finance Programme (BIF)In this service they provide short term working capital finance to manufacturing companies to exorbitance consumable inputs. Under the programme, BIF is offered for import of eligi ble items with a minimum order size of Rs.1 crores .And they provided the Short term loans in Indian Rupees and/or Foreign currency.Programme for Financing Research DevelopmentTo provide integrated financing for Research Development activities by export oriented companiesExim Banks finance available toFinancially good companies with a minimum export orientation of 20% of their net sales for the following eligible activities and eligible expenditure.Eligible RD Activities Eligible RD ExpenditureDevelopment and commercialization of new product / process / application.Significant improvements in existing product / process / application/ design.Development of technology or design to satisfy domestic or international environment, technical requirements/ standards, specifications.Setting up, expansion of pilot plants.FINANCE FOR EXPORT ORIENTED UNITSTerm FinanceProject FinanceEquipment FinanceImport of Technology Related ServicesDomestic Acquisitions of businesses/companies/brandsExpo rt Product Development/ Research DevelopmentGeneral Corporate FinanceWorking Capital Finance (For Exporting Companies)FundedWorking Capital Term Loans Long Term Working Capital up to 5 yearsExport Bills DiscountingExport Packing CreditCash full stop financingNon-FundedLetter of Credit LimitsGuarantee LimitsExport FinancePre-shipment CreditPost Shipment CreditBuyers CreditSuppliers Credit including deferred payment creditBills DiscountingExport Receivables FinancingWarehousing FinanceExport Lines of Credit (Non-recourse finance)Data analysisAs we know that Indias total external trade (exports plus imports including re-exports) in the year 1990-91 stood at Rs. 91,893 crore. Since then, this has witnessed continuous increase with occasional downturns. During 2008-09 the value of Indias external trade reached Rs. 20, 72,438 crore. A statement indicating Indias total export, import, total value of foreign trade and balance of trade from the year 1991-92 to 2008-09, in rupee terms, is g iven in table above.Indias exports during 2008-09 reached a take of Rs. 7, 66,935 crore registering a growth of 16.9 per cent. In US $ terms, exports reached a level of US$168.7 billion, registering a growth of 3.5 per cent as compared to a growth of 29.1 per cent during the previous year. The growth of exports during the year has exhibited a significant slow-down from September 2008 onwards. While, during the first fractional of the year 2008-09, April-September, exports change magnitude by 31.3 per cent with almost all the major commodity groups, except increased by 31.3 per cent with almost all the major commodity groups, except marine products, handicrafts and carpets, recording significant growth. In the second half of the year 2008-09, October-March, exports recorded a decline of (-) 19.2 per cent with almost all the commodity groups recording significant negative growth.During 2008-09 imports increased to Rs. 13,05,503 from the level of Rs. 10,12,312 crore in 2007-08 regis tering growth of 29.0 per cent in rupee terms. In US $ terms, imports reached a level of US $ 287.8 billion in 2008-09 registering a growth of 14.4 per cent. Oil imports were valued at US $ 93.2 billion, which was higher by 16.9 per cent over the previous year. Non-Oil imports increased to US $ 194.6 billion, which was higher by 13.2 per cent. Items which registered significant growth are Pearl, Precious Semi-Precious Stones, Crude Manufactured Fertilizer, Coal, Inorganic Chemicals, Project Goods, etc. Import of Gold and hold Equipment registered significant decline.The Trade deficit during 2008-09 increased to Rs. (-) 538568 crore as against Rs. (-) 356449 crore during 2007-08. In US $ terms, trade deficit increased to US 119.1 billion from a level of US 88.5 billion during 2007-08.India has trading relations with all the major trading blocks and geographical regions of the world. Region and sub region-wide spread of Indias during 2007-08 and 2008-09 as per data available up t o 2008-09 (April-February) is given in table 7.2. During the period 2008-09 (April-February), the share of Asia and ASEAN region comprising South Asia, East Asia, and Mid-Eastern and Gulf countries accounted for 51.4 per cent of Indias total exports. The share of Europe and America in Indias exports stood at 23.8 per cent and 16.5 per cent respectively of which EU countries (27) comprises 22.3 per cent. During the period, USA (12.0 per cent), has been the most important country of export destination following by United Arab Emirates (10.8 per cent), China (5.1 per cent), capital of Singapore (4.7 per cent), Netherlands (3.7 per cent), Hong Kong (3.7 per cent), U.K. (3.6 per cent), Germany (3.4 per cent), Saudi Arabia (3.0 per cent), Belgium (2.6 per cent) and Italy (2.2 per cent).Asia and ASEAN accounted for 61.7 per cent of Indias total imports during the period followed by Europe (18.7 per cent) and America (10.1 per cent). Among individual countries the share of China stood highe st at (10.7 per cent) followed by Saudi Arabia (7.1 per cent), UAE (6.4 per cent) and USA (6.0 per cent), Iran (4.3 percent), Switzerland (4.2 per cent), Germany (3.6 per cent), capital of Kuwait (3.4 per cent), Nigeria (3.2 per cent), and Iraq (2.8 per cent)ConclusionAs we describe above the various functions and role of the Exim Bank. Than we can say that it handles a variety of financing programs for Export Oriented Units (EOUs), Importers, and overseas investment

Market strategy and recommendations to enhance the USP

food market strategy and recommendations to grow the USP nervous strain Asia dish out damage has been volatile, with the contingent reasons for this volatility. Marketing Discuss the Market Strategy and recommendations to enhance the USP by using Models and diagrams.Ope dimensionn ManagementAnalysis of prioritise operations issues which be of strategical nature for the company and possible solutions. mental faculty Code MGTM IM 002Submitted to Programme Administration Team (Kaplan Financial)Submitted by Group 11Group members Name Student ID No.Chanakya C0346816Buddha C0364220Musharaf C0361333Saif C0360683Submission Date Friday 23rd April, 2010 slacken of ContentsTable of Contents 21. Introduction 32. Company Background 33. Meaning of dispense determine Volatility 33.2. practicable reasons for this volatility 44.2. Mareketing Strategy of picnic Asia 84.3. Environmental Analysis of transport Asia on the basis of Porters Five Forces (Chart-3) 95.1. note Asia Business s erve well 115.2. aerate Asia prioritises issues 125.3. Possible solutions 136. Conclusion 147. References 141. IntroductionThe company chosen for this report is Air Asia assigned by Kaplan Financial and assignment requirements as fol low-tonedA report of no more than 3500 wordsPossible reasons for the partake in volatilityMarket strategy to enhance USPOperational issues and possible solutions2. Company BackgroundAir Asia was initially established in 1996 as a full-service regional air passage offering slightly cheaper fares than its competitors. It was non performing well and its turning heyday was 2001 when it was bought by Tony Fernandes.Tony Fernandes restructured the company and re-established in Malaysia by enrolling whatsoever low cost skyway expert like Connor McCarthy (formal handler of masteryful European LCC Ryan air) in late 2001 as first no -frills, low cost carrier(LCC) in Asia, then it got huge success and become awards winner and giganticst low fare airline s in the Asia. Now Air Asia flies to over 61 domestic and inter discipline destinations with 108 routes with its own 72 aircrafts and operates over 400 flights daily.Air Asia believes in the no-frills, hassle free, low fare business organization concept and feels that keeping costs low requires game efficiency in e real part of the business. by means of its unique selling point (USP), NOW EVERYONE CAN FLY, Air Asia gained a revolution in airline business with more and more population choosing as their preferred choice of transport.3. Meaning of Share expenditure VolatilityMany of us use the word volatility in a loose sense, in a way that belies the accuracy with, which it bear be calculated. In fact, volatility is a statistical measure of the scale of fluctuations in the outlay of a share, a commodity or a stock market index in the recent past. It is generally taken to be a good measure for the congenator riskiness of an asset the higher the volatility, the greater the risk of losing notes. Volatility, however, is not a static thing. It fluctuates sometimes quite sharply over time. (Peter Temple 02.08.2007)3.1 Air Asia Share outlay VolatilityAs per Air Asia compositors case study the share bell of Air Asia has been volatile.Exhibit 5 Case StudyAirlinePrice on3Dec 2007US$Price on11 Jan 2008US$Share PriceChangeAir Asia0.520.43-16%Period of Change in Share PriceIn a very short term of a breaker point share price of Air Asia goes down by -16% in a period of 1 month and 1 week this is extreme change in share price so this is the sign of high volatility in share price.Air Asia Volatility from 2005-2009 (Chart -1)3.2. Possible reasons for this volatilityThere are lots of reasons for share volatility here in our case study of Air Asia. We chip in calculated on the basis of each year that volatility graph of Air Asia shown above.Latest reading in Stock Market Investing on share price needs lots of information about companys lay out situation. Investo r always invests their money if they saw the potential of getting good return from that investment. So information plays vital role to attract the investors. Market adjusts the prices up or down depending on the way the market interprets that the information will affect the companys proximo earnings ability.In Air Asia case study in November 2004 they listed in Malaysia Stock Exchange that air Asia is going to purchase 175-aircrft airbus A320-200 to replace Boeing 737-300s be dress A320-200 more force out efficient.This information attracts the investors to invest their money because market interprets that this will affect the companys future earnings ability.We can see in chart-1 in 2005 how share price go up by +0.63% so it shows the latest information has direct impact on share price volatility.Uncertainty Future is always uncertain some decision is made on the basis of future predictions. Investors are always keen on the past experience, current performance and future expectat ions of the company. Uncertainty is a major barrier for investor to oblige their mind to invest in share market.What exactly had happened in the Air Asia, in 2006 they choose to enter in to a domestic-route rationalising arrangement with MAS. Under this contract Air Asia took over more than two-thirds of MASs vent making routes assuming they can make profit from it as they are the LCC but this decision turns wrong because of uncertainty which is clear in chrat-1 that companys share price goes down by -5.03% .Psychological Issues on Stock Prices Human demeanour is one of the important factor that affect the share price of the company how investor commend about the company will determine whether to invest in it or not.Entering the British tycoon, founder and chairman of the Virgin Group Sir Richard Branson with 20% stake in Air Asia X in 2007. Expansion of business with Sir Richard Branson attracts the large numbers game of investors in the company because psychology of people be lieves the successful image of Richard Branson which as a result there is hike of share price by +6.62% in the year 2007.Inflation The overall general upward price movement of goods and go in an economy, usually as measured by the Consumer Price Index and the Producer Price Index. Over time, as the cost of goods and buy the farm increment, the value of money is going to fall because a person wont be able to purchase as much with that money as they previously could.Inflation is also one of the factors that affects the share price and leads to share volatility. As from the case study fuel cost had a significant impact on Air Asia, as it was the recession time occurs during the year 2008 were the international oil price reached at the high of about US $150 per barrel. So it was very costly for the airlines to purchase fuel at that high price which leads to increase the price of the tickets. As it was the recession time nodes also could not afford the change magnitude price plane fare so they used the alternatives way. Where there is less numbers of customers airline industries had lost Billions of dollars due to that occurrence. So inflation affected the share prices a lot.Although Air Asia tried to cover its operational cost by hedging, buy fuel-efficient airbus A320-200 and cutting fuel consumption by nearly and doubled the number of landing that we get from the tyre. They were not able to sustain on the same price of tickets.As per exhibit 6 case study.Following are the calculation give the sack and oil ratio = fuel and oil cost R regular(a)ue(2008) Fuel and oil ratio= 74164.88146731.5(2008) Fuel and oil ratio= 50.5%(2007) Fuel and oil ratio= 44488.62111346.3(2007) Fuel and oil ratio= 40.0%% = Current year ratio-base year ratio Base year ratio% = 50.5-40.0 40.0% = 26.25%So cost of the fuel increased by 26.25% due to hike in oil price in 2008 the cause of inflation has direct impact on companys net profit ratio if net profit is going to decrease so in vestor dont want to invest their money in non profit company. See chart-1 due to inflation the share price decreased by-45.34% in 2008.Demand and Supply It is another important factor that affects the share price. Demand is willingness and ability to pay where as supply depends on the market demand and suppliers ability. When demand is high supply is less and vice versa and when demand is high price of the product is also high and is low.In case of AirAsia recession caused its demand per share down in 2008, immersion of British tycoon Richard Branson increased the demand of share because of investors psychological beliefs. Restructuring of the no-frills, low cost in Asia increased the numbers of customers travelling with Air Asia which gives the US$6 million of profit celestial latitude 2002 which obviously rise of demand of share which leads to increased in share price.Economic Strength of Market and Peers Doing business in current market everyone should greet the market strength ens and the competitors of the business without considering these things it is impossible to do business. The economic strength of the peers heavily affected the share price of the company.The strong competitor of the Air Asia is MAS, as it is national carrier of Malaysia. To promote healthy competition in 2006 Malaysian government brought MAS and AIRASIA together then government starts with route rationalisation of MAS where Air Asia took 96 loss making routes of MAS while these routes were operated by MAS government used to ply subsidies for the fuel cost. This is totally unfair competition which leads share price down of Air Asia in 2006 you can see in chart 1.In 2008 MAS come up with the unaccepted everyday low fare Campion .It received an over whelming reaction which was funded by the government it was totally win-win position for MAS and that caused negative impact on Air Asia in 2008 which is clear from chart-1.4. Definition of Marketing StrategyA trade strategy is a proces s or model to allow a company or organization to focus limited resources on the best opportunities to increase sales and thereby achieve a sustainable competitive advantage.4.1. Porter generic strategiesStrategy on the dimensions of strategic setting and strategic strength. Strategic scope refers to the market penetration while strategic strength refers to the firms sustainable competitive advantage. The generic strategy framework (porter 1984) comprises two alternatives each with two alternative scopes. These are Differentiation and low-cost leadership each with a dimension of Focus-broad or narrow.Product differentiation (broad)Cost leadership (broad)Market segmentation (narrow)(Chart-2)4.2. Mareketing Strategy of Air AsiaAfter the restructured of the airline, the foundation is based on Low Cost and Strong Cash Flow,strategy is based on Low fare and service so close is obviousely on high margin and sustainable growth and vision is continue to be LOWEST cost. So you can see they are totaly focusing on the Low cost Low Pricing so they getting strong cash flow sustainable growth.So they are following porters generic strategy. Their strategic scope is referring to market penetration and while strategic strength refers to the firms sustainable competitive advantage. (On the basis of chart-2)Product differentiation Air Asia was the first airline street girl in Asia to adopt with the low-fare, no-frills concept. It also becomes the regions first airline to introduce fully ticketless travel and implements free seating policy. Thats Product differentiations makes It a successful airline in the market.Cost leadership Air Asia become the businesses that fully adopted cost leadership through operational effectiveness and efficiency. The cost advantages were enabled Air Asia to offered airfares 40% to 60% lower than those of its rivals. Some even cost less than bus fare. Even in 2008 when oil prices gone up they conditionled over the cost by layered-hedge strategy to pay for fuel in advance and qualify for low price its pilots have cut fuel consumption by nearly 20%.Market Segmentation Air Asia changes the human psychology in Asia by offering low fare and targeting middle class society. Earlier people think that whole rich people can fly but then come with the No frills, Low Cost Carrier under the tagline Now Everyone tooshie Fly. This whole idea captured the middle class and now no one is felling faired to fly.4.3. Environmental Analysis of Air Asia on the basis of Porters Five Forces (Chart-3)The threat of the entryway of stark naked competitors Air Asia is using penetration strategy under this there is always threat of the refreshful entry exist because Air Asia is get success in the field of LCCs so now everyone want to do same business with same strategy.The intensity of competitive rivalry Competition rivalry is currently in Air Asias favour. With price being the main battlefield of competition, Air Asia leads the way due to its low operating costs. However, there are more competitors entering the market that have major carriers as backers or owners which may lead to an unrealistic price war in the future.The threat of substitute products or services Air Asia is domestic carrier so there is existence of substitute services are high customer can go for Bus services either for Railways or for their own transport facilities because of low distance if their services and prices are not effective.The bargaining force-out of customer Today is world of Information Technology and communication everyone can find the world easily so easy availability of information and knowledge can make the bargaining power of consumer strong. E.g. customer can easily switch to other airlines by comparing the fares of different airlines. Even there are now lots competitors in LCCs so customer can easily move.The bargaining power of suppliers For Air Asia bargaining of suppliers is major factor. In the airline industry basically ther e are only two major aircraft provider Boeing and Airbus. Although Air Asia is major customer of Airbus even than the bargaining power of suppliers is high due to expertise and few substitutes.4.4. Unique selling Proposition of Air Asia Fernandes restructured Air Asia in 2001 , with the No Frills, Low Cost Carrier under the tagline Now Everyone Can Fly this unique selling point for Air Asia. This new business model was huge success. With this new unique selling point the company gained impressive profit. Then they come with aristocratic to Book, casual to Pay Easy to Fly to encourage sale through online booking, telephone booking and through co-partner local banks and post offices.4.5. Recommendation Some modification in current market strategy on the bases of Marketing Mix (7Ps) to enhance Unique Selling Point.Product (service) There is a huge opportunity for Air Asia to expand its route and service and numbers of flights, they also lacking in good service in terms of flight de lay. Because of it they get lots of complaints they should work on that to enhance good servicePrice They are working on penetration price strategy and under this they are providing the cheapest price in the market and that is a strengths but if you see the margins per seat is very low it makes turn over high but not the net profit so they should control the operating cost to cover up that margin. So they should go with penetration.Place Presently Air Asias putting more stress on Malaysia. Singapore, Thailand and Indonesia wheresoever Air Asia X only on Australia but low cost concept can also capture the market of India, China, Pakistan and Bangladesh and for long haul they can go for Europe and US.Promotions As LCCs they are moreover targeting the middle class so to keep up the sale and to enhance USP they should come up with the new promotions scheme after a certain period of time because middle class is major customer, they should know they like changes and savings in their purch asing.People From the kickoff they are only providing standard-class service on board its seems they are not targeting business class so if they come up with some of its more business concerned routs with business class they must get positive response. plow Refers to the systems used to assist the organisation in delivering the service. Process must be very easy so that customer feels comfortable and convenient and preferred again and again.Physical Evidence Where the service is provided. Physical Evidence is factor which makes customer to make judgement on the company or service. E.g. Customer accept what he/she spent so from the starting Air Asias tag line is No Frill airline but if you provide the frills even in the low cost it makes everyone happy. My meaning for frills is good service with the outstanding staff presentation and an unexpected intimate of the craft.5. Operation ManagementThe collection of people knowledge, technology, and systems within an organisation that has primary responsibility for producing and providing the organizations products or services is referred to as operations. Operations direction is the planning, scheduling, control and co-ordination of the activities that transubstantiate inputs into finished goods and services. It is important because it can reduce costs, differentiate the organizations products and services and impact upon quality and therefore may increase revenue through increased customer satisfaction. (Phil Kelly 2009).This section is a process analysis to identify and prioritise current strategic operation issues and possible solution for Air Asia.5.1. Air Asia Business ProcessAir Asias Operations management is focusing carefully on managing the processes to produce and distribute its services.These processes include-Procurement- buying various materials from suppliers and vendorsManagement control and arrange functions to ensure goals are being met.Product (service)- managing the service- creation, developme nt, distribution and sales.Quality management important to effective operations management by continuous improvement.Inventory management-Method like JUST-IN-TIME inventory control saves costs and improves on quicker delivery to end customers.Logistics management focuses on the flow of services from Air Asia to its customer prioritizing on efficiency and cost effectiveness.Distribution channels.8) Booking by mobiles is also available.5.2. Air Asia prioritises issues1. Air Asia always focused on how to reduce inefficiency and make it low possible fare in the airline business As we know they are operating penetration on market strategy to reduced costs, they even decrease the salaries and incentives of the employees, cutting down the staffs and even cutting down this facilities given to staffs and implementing the new efficient system like YMS, CRS AND ERP, which were helpful to reduced the cost but not to that extent.2. Higher fuel cost around the world Frequent fluctuation in fue l cost is one of the major problem for Air Asia as its emphasis on low cost their profit margin per ticket is low as price of fuel goes up they have to charge tickets price which creates negative effects in customers eyes.3. Complain Its because of delay in flight and even cancellation is one of the major current issues in Air Asia.4. No maintenance, come to and overhaul As we know they dont have their own maintenance, repair and overhaul so they have to spend on maintenance, repair and overhaul.5. Incresing competition At present competition in the airline industries growing day by day many full service airlines start cut costs to compete and new entry of LCC.6. Aviation regulation and government policy Changing rules and regulation in aviation industry and government policies is also one of the issues that Air Asia facing today.7. Easy to buy, easy pay and easy to fly In Malaysia Air Asia company was the first internet ticket seller airlines company. They are offering Easy to Bo ok, Easy to Pay Easy to Fly system for their customers. So customers are easily paying and booking their ticket by online5.3. Possible solutions1. Cost control As we know cost is one of the main possible solutions that can save any organisation from loss and compete in the competitive market. Air Asia can save their cost by starting their own maintenance and repair wing and overhaul routes.2. Implementing the APS system Implementation of APS system will provide several new functions to Air Asia. The followings are several APS functions that can help Air Asia in increasing its performanceAPS system will help Air Asia in assessing suppliers performance and providing the capability to streamline monitoring process. (Aberdeen Group, 2004).Supplier portal will provide information hub for airlines and their suppliers to prevent errors happened during operational activities such as parliamentary law processing (Aberdeen Group, 2004)These functions enable airlines and aircraft manufacture rs and other suppliers to have collaboration strategy in managing inventory (e.g. spare parts), maintenance schedule, and design collaboration. Route profitability analysis tools enable airline companies to conduct analysis for planning efficient routes.3. Outsourcing Air Asia can use outsourcing strategy to be a lowest carrier in airline industry. If they can implement outsourcing strategy then they will get some benefits like,Cost benefitsIt will reduce risk.Outsourcing can give competitive advantage in Air Asia.Air Asia can reduce cost for IT.4. Expansion of Air Asia business As Air Asia is focusing on middle class people its expansion towards Indian and China has potential to gather the huge success. We know the population of Asian middle class are rising very fast. So it is a great opportunity for LCC cost airlines including Air Asia to expand their business in Asia.6. ConclusionAs we know Air Asia is a leading low fare airline in Asia. Its low cost attracts more and more custo mers and its market value and has increased its revenue. But knowing it from near its share price is volatile so management should focused on sustainable development with utilising marketing mix as we discussed above and should focused on customers as customers are key point for the companys success. Only low cost will not sufficient to survive in the competitive market. Providing good services like as they are saying easy to book, easy to buy and easy to fly but it is not always the facts as they are getting complains of delaying flight and even cancellation which makes bad reputation in the eyes of customers. Thats why they need to operates APS systems to overcome such a problems.

Depression Essay example -- Health, Depressed Individuals

Certain practical issues need to be considered by the clinician during the assessment of MDD, (Dozois & Dobson, 2009). Depressed individuals tend to express their problems in a detailed behavior when they are aware of what is expected from them during initial phase of assessment. Warning depressed clients about the possible interruptions at the initial phase along with providing them rationale helps to mend the effectiveness of the assessment (Dozois & Dobson, 2009). As depressed individuals tend to commit cognitive bias (Dozois & Beck, 2008), it is necessary to determine the actual impairment by evaluating patients daily routine in terms of different areas of functioning. Each diagnostic criteria needs to be addressed in number of ways (Shea, 1988). Sometimes, the patient see their symptoms in more idiosyncratic way. So, the clinician needs to translate those concerns in to the nosological system (Dozois & Dobson, 2009). Bolland & Keller (2009) emphasize the need to assess the number of previous episodes and their duration because this information is unrivalled the predictor for risk of subsequent relapse (Solomon et al, 2000). Dozois & Dobson (2009) have reported to rely upon information related to previous episode carefully as the client may commit the reporting bias. The reporting bias can be reduced by ensuring that the patient understands the time frame to which he or she refers (Dozois & Dobson, 2009) and providing contextual cues to the patients memory (Shea, 1988). The information related to previous treatments, medical history, patients motivation for limiting, etc. may help in identifying resources for change (Dozois & Dobson, 2009). It is overly helpful to assess clients strengths which will help in formulating... ...owever, if Medical cracks worsens the symptoms of depression, then mood disorder is diagnosed as MDD and medical condition is listed on Axis III of the DSM-IV-TR( APA, 2000a). It is difficult to differentiate between d epression and dementia (Gualtieri and Johnson, 2008), but certain differences can be noted among two (Dozois and Dobson, 2009). For example, new-fangled memory is more effected in depression than remote memory such symptoms are not prominent in dementia (Dozois and Dobson, 2009).Conclusion For the high-fidelity assessment of MDD, the clinician should not rely upon results obtained from one psychometric instrument. Rather, he or she should try to integrate information obtained from multiple sources to get the holistic picture of patient. The clinicians also needs to consider above mentioned practical issues while making assessment related to MDD.

Susan Glaspells Trifles - Little Things Mean a Lot :: Trifles Essays

Little Things Mean a Lot in Trifles   Susan Glaspells play, Trifles, explores the fact that women pay attention to the little things that whitethorn lead to the solving of a bigger problem. Why are women so into the little things? The attention to detail seems to be the starting point to solving the bigger problem. Think of the little things as pieces of a puzzle. When the small pieces come together you see the bigger picture. In the play Trifles the men seem to think the women only worry about the little things, or trifles. What the men do not realize is that the women are actually solving the murder by worrying, or trifling, all everywhere the small details. To really understand this aspect we have to look at the play itself. The first example of the attention to detail is the fruit preserves. In lines 78 to seventy-nine Mrs. Peters says, She worried about that when it turned so cold. She verbalize the fired go out and her jars would break. To which the Sheriff repli es, Well, can you beat the women Held for murder and worrin about her preserves. In line lxxxiii Mr. Hale says, Well, women are use to worrying over trifles. If Mrs. Wright had not been preoccupied, she could have started a fire to keep the preserves from freezing. Another example of trifling is noticing that Mrs. Wright did not awake while her husband was being strangled to death. Unless the Wrights slept in separate beds, Mrs. Wright should have felt the struggle between her husband and the murderer. Even though Mrs. Wright said she was a deep sleeper, she still should have heard the gasping for air and the struggle that was going on right next to her. Another thing that seemed very strange to everybody was that there was a gun in the house. Why not use the gun? Why use the rope? According to the essay, On Susan Glaspells Trifles, the author notes, The throttle of Mr. Wright, which perplexes all when a gun was handy, is reminiscent of the strangling of that bird (1). The third example of noticing the small things is the piecing of the quilt. The women were wondering if she was going to knot it or quilt it. The Sheriff over hears the conversation and says to the County Attorney in line one cardinal and sixty-three, They wonder if she was going to quilt it or just knot it In lines one hundred and sixty-six to sixty-seven Mrs.